52 Q1/Q2 papers backing FuelRace

Synthesises modern carbohydrate-loading protocols of 8 to 12 g/kg/day in the 24 to 48 h before endurance events, highlighting that carbohydrate type, gut training, and protein and sodium synergy modulate glycogen supercompensation.

Shows that the timing of carbohydrate intake around exercise significantly alters glycaemia and substrate oxidation in athletes, reinforcing that meal-to-training intervals should be planned rather than improvised.

Confirms 1 to 4 g/kg of carbohydrate in the 1 to 4 h before exercise as the core recommendation and supports mixed food sources (oats, rice, banana, honey) as an effective alternative to gels and drinks for the pre-event meal.

Using real-world continuous glucose monitoring data, most reactive hypoglycaemia events occurred when food was eaten 30 to 90 min pre-exercise, peaking at 60 min, so a snack should fall outside that window or be taken just before exercise starts.

Contemporary narrative review confirming current targets for carbohydrate during prolonged exercise (30 to 60 g/h for 1 to 2.5 h events and up to 90 g/h beyond 2.5 h), advocating periodisation according to intensity and duration and pointing toward increasing personalisation of recommendations.

Systematic review of 15 studies concludes real-food carbohydrate sources such as raisins, bananas, honey and rice cakes give equivalent endurance performance to commercial gels and drinks, although they may slightly increase gastrointestinal symptoms in events longer than 2 hours.

Meta-analysis of 96 studies confirming the ergogenic effect of carbohydrate solutions during endurance exercise, with greater benefit for 6 to 8% glucose-fructose mixtures in 1 to 4 h events and for approximately 6% single-source solutions in 45 to 60 min efforts.

A meal with 3 g/kg of carbohydrate around 3 h pre-exercise increased time to exhaustion by 8% versus fasting and by 7.2% versus a low-carbohydrate meal, supporting the T-3h breakfast principle.

A meta-analysis of 20 crossover studies concludes that co-ingestion of carbohydrate and protein accelerates glycogen resynthesis only when it adds energy to the protocol, not when it replaces carbohydrate, validating the 1.0 to 1.2 g/kg carbohydrate plus 0.3 g/kg protein formula.

Randomised trial in elite runners who had completed prior nutritional and gut training, in which 120 g/h during a mountain marathon reduced muscle damage markers (CK, LDH and GOT) and internal perceived load compared with 60 and 90 g/h.

In 26 elite trail runners, 120 g/h during a mountain marathon limited neuromuscular fatigue measured by Abalakov jump and half-squat and improved high-intensity run capacity 24 h afterwards versus 60 and 90 g/h.

Landmark review establishing the scaling of carbohydrate per hour by exercise duration: mouth rinse or small amounts in approximately 1 h high-intensity events, 30 to 60 g/h in longer events and up to 90 g/h beyond 2.5 h, with benefit from multiple transportable carbohydrate blends at high intake rates.

Foundational study showing that ingesting a 1:1 glucose plus fructose mixture at 2.4 g/min raises peak exogenous carbohydrate oxidation to about 1.75 g/min, well above the approximately 1 g/min ceiling seen with glucose alone, by exploiting separate intestinal transporters (SGLT1 and GLUT5).

An individualized hydration strategy matched to each athlete's fluid and sweat sodium losses more than doubled intake compared with ad libitum drinking and prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise time in the heat.

Exercise-associated hyponatremia is caused mainly by overconsumption of hypotonic fluids leading to weight gain during the event, so tracking intake against losses is more effective than sodium supplementation alone.

Sodium replacement becomes recommended when exercise exceeds two hours, occurs in hot climate, or shows sweat sodium losses above 3 to 4 g, and must always be paired with adequate hydration.

Meta-analysis shows hypotonic carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks with lower sugar concentration and reduced osmolality best preserve plasma volume during continuous exercise, since osmolality and carbohydrate concentration are the dominant drivers of gastric emptying and intestinal fluid absorption.

Sodium replacement during exercise in the heat is only necessary when sweat sodium concentration exceeds the 75th percentile and more than 80% of water losses are replaced, that is, in long sessions with heavy sweating.

The meta-analysis shows that CYP1A2 genotype modulates the ergogenic response to caffeine, with more pronounced benefits in A-allele carriers, reinforcing the need to individualize the dose.

Across 21 controlled trials, caffeine at 3 to 9 mg/kg increased time to exhaustion in running with a medium effect and reduced time-trial times in both recreational and trained runners.

Caffeine doses of 3 to 6 mg/kg taken about 60 min before exercise consistently improve aerobic performance and several anaerobic capacities, with benefits also documented in the heat and at altitude.

Joint position statement details the circulatory-gastrointestinal pathway, in which redistribution of splanchnic blood flow during intense exercise drives hypoperfusion and gut ischaemia, and recommends pacing down, gut training and adjusting drink composition as core strategies to prevent symptoms.

Systematic review shows 2-week repeated carbohydrate feeding protocols during training reduce gut discomfort by around 47 percent and carbohydrate malabsorption by 45 to 54 percent, consistent with up-regulation of intestinal SGLT1 and GLUT5 transporters.

Controlled trial in trained runners ingesting 90 g/h of 2:1 glucose to fructose, in which the hydrogel form (alginate plus pectin) improved 5 km time-trial by 2.1%, increased exogenous carbohydrate oxidation and reduced gastrointestinal symptoms compared with a standard solution.

In trained runners, adding sodium alginate and pectin to a 70 g/h carbohydrate beverage did not change exogenous glucose oxidation rate or reduce gastrointestinal symptoms compared with an isocaloric non-hydrogel drink.

Methodological review confirms exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome stems from splanchnic hypoperfusion and epithelial damage that scale with intensity and heat stress, with symptoms emerging mainly at high intensities, supporting easing pace as a response to mid-race nausea or cramping.

Narrative review of six RCTs concludes that alginate and pectin carbohydrate hydrogels do not improve exogenous glucose oxidation, gastrointestinal comfort or performance versus matched conventional carbohydrate drinks during prolonged moderate-intensity exercise.

Landmark observational study of 221 cycling, running and Ironman competitors shows wide individual variability in carbohydrate intake (6 to 136 g/h) and high prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms, indicating individual tolerance and gut training are central to preventing complaints.

Landmark study showing gastric emptying is primarily set by drink energy content, with carbohydrate solutions above 6 to 8 percent markedly slowing emptying and increasing the likelihood of gastric discomfort.

A recent review repositioning the anabolic window debate: carbohydrate intake is the primary driver of glycogen resynthesis and added protein boosts muscle recovery, while the rigid 30-min window has been broadened to a several-hour interval.

Aged muscle shows delayed, prolonged and less efficient recovery after exercise-induced damage, driven by anabolic resistance, mitochondrial dysfunction and unresolved inflammation, although specific evidence on glycogen storage in masters athletes remains scarce.

Master athletes benefit from a per-meal protein dose of about 0.4 g/kg of high-quality leucine-rich protein, roughly 65% higher than typical young-adult doses, to maximise post-exercise myofibrillar protein synthesis.

In masters triathletes, doubling post-exercise protein to 0.6 g/kg per bolus instead of 0.3 g/kg attenuated the loss of isometric strength and reduced perceived fatigue after downhill running, with moderate to large beneficial effects on recovery.

Meta-analysis of 227 outcomes shows mean 7.6% drop in performance after acute sleep loss, roughly 0.4% decrement per extra hour awake. Impact is worst when sleep loss is from delayed bedtime or early waking, and when exercise is performed in the afternoon.

Elite athletes often sleep under 7h/night with poor quality. The authors recommend an individualised approach based on perceived needs rather than a one-size-fits-all 7 to 9h rule, and identify anxiety, travel and early training as key disruptors.

Systematic review of 37 studies concludes that naps of 20 to 90 min, taken between 13:00 and 16:00, benefit physical and cognitive performance without harming night-time sleep. Athletes should allow 30 min to clear sleep inertia before training or competing.

In cyclists and triathletes, extending time in bed by 30% across 3 nights (about 8.2 to 8.6h actual sleep) improved endurance time-trial by roughly 3% vs habitual 6.5 to 7.1h sleep, while restriction worsened performance. Endurance athletes should sleep more than 8h/night.

Review recommends avoiding caffeine 6h before bed, limiting screens 30 to 60 min pre-sleep, keeping the room cool at 18 to 20 degrees and dark, and using sleep banking in the days before competition. Sleep extension improves sprint times, accuracy and reaction time.

Systematic review concludes that sleep extension (sleep banking) is the most consistent intervention for improving athletic performance, followed by napping. Sleep hygiene alone has modest effects and supplementation has weak evidence.

About 70% of 103 athletes slept worse than usual the night before competition, well below the 8h target. Anxiety, noise, bathroom trips and early event times were the main causes. Poorer sleep quality was linked to more pre-race fatigue and tension.

Systematic review shows iron deficiency reduces endurance performance by 3 to 4 percent, while supplementation with around 100 mg of elemental iron per day improves capacity by 2 to 20 percent in athletes with confirmed deficiency.

The IOC consensus updates the REDs framework with a new Clinical Assessment Tool (CAT2), highlights the growing role of low carbohydrate availability, and reinforces low energy availability as the root cause of impaired health and performance.

The ISSN position stand emphasises that female athletes should prioritise adequate energy intake and that, despite sex differences in carbohydrate and fat metabolism, practical targets for protein (1.4 to 2.2 g/kg/day) and in-exercise carbohydrate follow general recommendations.

To overcome age-related anabolic resistance, a per-meal protein dose of 0.4 to 0.6 g/kg distributed across daily meals is recommended, with the upper end needed in some older individuals to maximise muscle protein synthesis.

Active women tend to oxidise more fat and less carbohydrate than men, yet absolute in-race g/h recommendations remain similar; fine tuning happens mostly in daily intake and across menstrual cycle phases.

Low energy availability remains underdiagnosed in athletes, particularly in endurance sports, and the LEAF-Q questionnaire is useful for screening in females; awareness of RED-S among coaches and athletes remains low.

Meta-analysis of 78 studies indicates that performance may be trivially reduced during the early follicular phase compared with other cycle phases, but individual variability is high, favouring personalised approaches over blanket rules.

Pre-exercise carbohydrate ingestion improves performance in longer-duration exercise, and the size, type and timing of pre-event meals (including intermediate meals) should be personalised to duration, intensity and glycogen availability.

ISSN position stand for single-stage ultra-marathon recommending 30 to 50 g/h of carbohydrate during racing (within 150 to 400 kcal/h), using varied sources to preserve palatability, and supporting progressive gut training to tolerate higher intakes.

Iron deficiency affects 15 to 35 percent of female athletes and exercise increases hepcidin, the master regulatory hormone, reducing absorption; iron intake is best timed within 30 minutes post-training before hepcidin peaks.

The IOC consensus confirms caffeine as an effective ergogenic aid at low to moderate doses, but stresses that an individual health assessment, including age and cardiovascular factors, must precede the use of any performance supplement.

Official ISSN position: the immediate post-exercise window matters most when the next session is under 8 h away, recommending 1.0 to 1.2 g/kg/h of carbohydrate, with protein (0.3 to 0.4 g/kg) accelerating recovery when carbohydrate intake is suboptimal.